Every source, annotated and linked.

4 sources · sources with full research records listed first

1. Systematic review·2017

   Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). Does far transfer exist? Negative evidence from chess, music, and working memory training. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 515–520.

   Summarises meta-analytic evidence that training in chess, music or working memory rarely transfers to distant academic or general cognitive skills, especially in better-controlled studies.

   doi:10.1177/0963721417712760(opens in a new tab)
   Research recorddesign, findings, limitations

   Research question

   Does training in chess, music or working memory transfer to distant skills such as academic achievement or general intelligence?

   Design

   A short review summarising several meta-analyses of cognitive training.

   What it found

   • Far transfer effects were generally small or absent.
   • Effects tended to shrink in better-designed studies, such as those with active control groups.

   Limitations

   • Written by authors of the meta-analyses it summarises.
   • Does not address near transfer or the intrinsic value of chess or music.

   Educational implications

   Be cautious of programmes claiming that training one skill will improve learning broadly.

   Cognitive Lab interpretation

   Cognitive Lab uses this as a reason to teach strategies within subjects rather than through general “brain training”.

   Editorial summary · last checked 2026-10-18 · not independently reviewed

2. Theoretical paper·2014

   Chi, M. T. H., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educational Psychologist, 49(4), 219–243.

   Proposes four modes of cognitive engagement — passive, active, constructive and interactive — defined by what learners overtly do, and hypothesises that learning tends to increase across those modes.

   doi:10.1080/00461520.2014.965823(opens in a new tab)
   Research recorddesign, findings, limitations

   Research question

   Can learning activities be classified by the kind of cognitive engagement they invite, and do those categories predict learning?

   Design

   A theoretical framework, supported by a review of prior studies, linking observable learning activities to modes of engagement.

   What it found

   • Proposes passive, active, constructive and interactive modes, defined by overt learner behaviour.
   • Reviewed studies were broadly consistent with learning increasing from passive to interactive modes.

   Limitations

   • Overt behaviour is an imperfect indicator of the thinking that is happening.
   • The hierarchy is a hypothesis; the size and reliability of differences vary across studies.
   • An “interactive” activity done poorly may not outperform a well-designed constructive one.

   Educational implications

   When designing tasks, ask what students will generate, not only what they will do. Discussion and explanation can raise engagement when they require building on each other’s ideas.

   Cognitive Lab interpretation

   Cognitive Lab uses ICAP as a planning lens. It is not a reason to make every activity collaborative.

   Editorial summary · last checked 2026-10-18 · not independently reviewed

3. Narrative review·2013

   Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.

   Reviewed the core executive functions — inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility — and their development.

   doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750(opens in a new tab)
4. Experimental study·2000

   Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100.

   Found that shifting, updating and inhibition are related but separable abilities — “unity and diversity”.

   doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734(opens in a new tab)